Le quantitatif et le culturel

 

La rencontre, insolite mais édifiante,

du quantitatif et du culturel

 

Histoire & Mesure, 1987, II-2, ..-..

 

 

En 1969, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie pouvait écrire qu'"à la limite ... il n'est d'histoire scientifique que du quantifiable" (1) ; en 1968 déjà, il allait jusqu'à pronostiquer en liaison avec la quantification que "l'historien de demain sera programmateur ou il ne sera pas" (2). On connaît la suite. Après un essor d'une quinzaine d'années, grosso modo de 1960 à 1975, l'histoire quantitative est devenue une histoire comme une autre - avec le désenchantement en plus. Ses grands praticiens, tels Chaunu, Goubert, Le Roy Ladurie, Furet, Vovelle, s'ils n'ont pas complètement délaissé le chiffre, ne font plus appel à lui dans leurs livres, le réservant à quelques articles et enquêtes. Soyons précis : le nombre d'études pratiquant le quantitatif ne cesse de s'accroître ; c'est son exclusivité, sa visibilité auprès du public cultivé, son caractère conquérant qui ne sont plus. On est donc en droit de s'étonner de l'absence quasi-totale de réflexion sur l'aventure quantitative, sur une méthode vécue comme une mode. Or le dernier texte théorique majeur sur "Le quantitatif en histoire" (de François Furet) date de 1974 (3), l'apogée de la méthode. Sur ce qui ne pouvait pas ne pas être perçu comme un retour au non quantitatif - rien (4).

M'étant embarqué sur cette galère bien tard, en 1982, quand la vague était déjà ailleurs, je ne saurais me substituer aux représentants du quantitatif conquérant. Ce texte est la tentative d'une arrière-garde pour comprendre la logique de ce qui était il y a peu avant-garde, de comprendre surtout les raisons du déplacement des méthodes que je ne crois ni inéluctable, ni définitif. Pour ce faire, j'adopterai un procédé à première vue surprenant, qui consiste à observer le quantitatif dans sa rencontre avec la culture, plus précisément la culture savante, l'"ensemble des aspects intellectuels d'une civilisation". Surprenant, car dans l'histoire quantitative, la quantification de la culture fait figure de parent pauvre, marginal. Certes, les textes programmatiques et récapitulatifs en parlent ; mais en annexe, en marge des grandes disciplines quantitatives, la démographie historique et l'histoire économique (et d'abord l'histoire des prix). Pierre Chaunu annonce dans deux articles connus l'avènement du "quantitatif au troisième niveau" (5) ; mais il s'agit de l'histoire sociale de la religion (L. Pérouas), des attitudes devant la mort (M. Vovelle, P. Chaunu), de la famille (J.-M. Gouesse), non de l'histoire de la culture savante. Même François Furet, pourtant pionnier dans la quantification de la culture des élites (6), est plutôt réservé quant à cette branche du quantitatif (7). Et Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie est encore plus circonspect, voire sceptique, qui écrit que la quantification des disciplines qualitatives, telle celle des mentalités, risquerait de "sombrer dans la platitude, ou dans le ridicule", tant que les chercheurs ne s'en donnent pas les qualifications (8). Bref, qu'elles ne sont pas encore mûres. La pratique lui donne d'ailleurs raison : les historiens de la culture sont en général très mal équipés pour cette mission, avec leur bagage statistique et mathématique tout à fait primaire ; mon expérience est là pour en témoigner. C'est la raison pour laquelle il ne sera ici question que de quantification, c'est-à-dire de comptage, et pas de statistique.

Or curieusement, c'est, selon toute vraisemblance, la quantification de la culture qui a remis en question la méthode quantitative. L'âge d'or du quantitatif, faut-il le rappeler, coïncidait avec la naissance et le succès mondial de l'histoire des mentalités. Leur jonction est ainsi devenue une sorte de test case pour l'un comme pour l'autre. Or le quantitatif n'a pas tenu ses promesses dans ce domaine, tant s'en faut. Du coup, la méthode fut discréditée ou, ce qui revenait alors au même, renvoyée à ses terrains traditionnels, la démographie et l'économie. Ajoutons que l'histoire des mentalités à la façon des années 1960 ne s'est pas relevée de cette mésaventure non plus.

Je me propose de traiter de plusieurs thèmes groupés autour de trois questions : a. Qu'est-ce qui pousse l'historien de la culture à faire du quantitatif ? b. Quelles sont les spécificités de la rencontre du culturel et du chiffre ? c. Quels enseignements sur la méthode en général cette rencontre permet-elle de tirer ?

Loin d'être une synthèse historiographique, il s'agit là de réflexions axées sur ma propre expérience. Les quelques études citées et analysées - celles, devenues paradigmatiques, de Furet et de Vovelle mises à part - le doivent aux hasards de mes lectures et aux besoins de la démonstration. L'argument majeur que j'essaierai de défendre ici est le suivant : toute méthode a des limites qui lui sont constitutives ; ne pas définir ces limites, ne pas les explorer, aboutit inéluctablement à de graves malentendus. Faire le bilan critique de la méthode quantitative consiste donc à réfléchir, le plus lucidement possible, sur ses limites.

I. L'historien de la culture et le quantitatif

A cette question insolite, je verrais deux réponses principales, l'une "négative" : le refus du "qualitatif", et  l'autre "positive" : la qualité, la fiabilité des sources qui l'y invitent.

1. Dépasser le faux qualitatif

La méthode quantitative est avant tout une méthode réactionnelle, dans le premier sens du terme : elle réagit contre ce qui s'est fait auparavant. Chiffrer, mesurer, compter les "aspects intellectuels d'une civilisation" est en contradiction parfaite avec tout ce qui est fait en la matière depuis des siècles. Plus qu'une réaction, ces pratiques sont vécues comme de la provocation ou du non-sens. Il s'agit là des origines militantes, idéologiques de la quantification de la culture.

Afin de mieux cerner cet aspect, il faudrait se pencher sur le célèbre couple "quantitatif - qualitatif". Cette opposition, qu'on pratique aujourd'hui comme si elle renvoyait à des catégories universelles, n'a de sens qu'historique. Pour le dire sommairement, le "qualificatif", contre quoi réagit le "quantitatif", fut en réalité le produit de celui-ci. En d'autres termes, on ne faisait pas du qualitatif sans le savoir, à l'instar de Monsieur Jourdain qui parlait en prose sans le savoir : le Bourgeois gentilhomme manquait du terme, tandis que l'historien pré-quantitatif, d'alternative. Le XIXe siècle connaissait déjà une opposition qui s'apparente à la nôtre, entre l'étude statistique des phénomènes massifs, et une étude sur les pratiques et les moeurs ; mais cette pratique appartient alors surtout aux romanciers.

On pourrait pourtant inverser le regard, pour se demander si l'histoire qualitative pure a jamais vraiment existé. L'histoire, comme toute entreprise intellectuelle à la recherche de l'intelligibilité du monde, aspire forcément au général ; ou, ce qui revient au même, aux articulations du particulier et du général. On pourrait même écrire l'histoire de la pratique historique comme un long combat contre de jugement si défavorable d'Aristote dans le IXe chapitre de la Poétique : "... la poésie  est plus philosophique que l'histoire : la poésie traite plutôt du général, l'histoire, du particulier". Or le général, et qu'on le veuille ou non, passe le plus souvent par la quantité. Les formules qui dominent le discours historique en témoignent largement : "les hommes du moyen âge croyaient que ...", "au XVIIIe siècle, il était rare que ...", "ce n'est que très rarement que ...", "les parlementaires avaient tendance à ..." ; rien n'incarne mieux le quantitatif implicite que le terme "on", si souvent employé dans les sciences humaines.

Ainsi, la méthode quantitative n'était pas une réaction contre les approches "qualitatives", mais avant tout contre le pseudo qualitatif, ou le quantitatif impressionniste. Le besoin se faisait sentir de mettre en accord discours et pratique. D'o— deux solutions qui s'excluent. D'une part, viser, autant que possible, le qualitatif "pur", celui qui permettrait le passage du particulier au général sans la quantification ; je pense surtout à la micro-storia qui développe, en pratique, le concept paradoxal de l'"exceptionnel normal" d'E. Grendi, et à l'anthropological mode of history qui consiste à pratiquer l'analyse "dense", "en épaisseur" d'un fait, d'un événement ou d'un rite, méthode qu'on identifie avec le nom de Clifford Geertz) (9). D'autre part, ne généraliser qu'à partir de la quantification ; ou pour aller plus loin encore dans la même logique, ne traiter que le quantifiable.

En adoptant la méthode quantitative dans sa pureté, l'historien limite ses recherches aux seules problématiques quantitativement abordables, ou qui se laissent reformuler en des termes quantifiables ; en cela, il ressemble au biologiste dont "toute l'activité tend à reformuler les problèmes les plus variés en questions accessibles au laboratoire. Tous ses efforts visent à poser des questions à quoi peut répondre l'expérience" (10). Or, faut-il le rappeler, l'histoire des sciences naturelles est celle de la tension, parfois insupportable, entre les problèmes qu'on veut, à un moment historique précis, résoudre et les problèmes que l'outillage, mental et technique, permet alors d'aborder. Tension qui n'est que trop souvent à l'origine de dérives jugées non scientifiques mais qui s'avèrent parfois indispensables pour le progrès de la science.

Ma propre expérience quantitative a précisément cette double origine : l'insatisfaction grandissante devant le discours traditionnel de l'histoire de la culture qui ne cesse de généraliser tout en refusant ou ignorant toute corroboration quantitative, jugée incompatible avec l'"essence" qualitative de la culture des élites ; la reformulation, en des termes quantifiables, d'une problématique classique de l'histoire de la culture : la survie (sélection) culturelle.

Avant de conclure cette partie consacrée aux motivations "négatives" qui poussent l'historien de la culture à compter, je voudrais évoquer très brièvement deux de ces motivations dont on ne parle qu'en coulisses : la recherche de la respectabilité "scientifique", et l'effet "thérapeutique" des chiffres.

Les études culturelles sont d'une sophistication qu'on ne trouve nulle part ailleurs ; ceci ne les empêche pas d'être vues avec méfiance par les autres disciplines. Ceux qui les pratiquent sont d'ailleurs les premiers à en reconnaître la raison : les thèses qui y sont acceptées ou réfutées le doivent davantage à l'habileté rhétorique des auteurs et au contexte socio-intellectuel plus ou moins favorable qu'à une quelconque conformité à des critères bien définis et universellement admis. Or la méthode quantitative semble présenter, à cet égard, un avantage évident. En l'adoptant, l'historien de la culture trouve la tranquillité, toute relative il est vrai, de participer à un jeu dont il ne réinvente pas à chaque instant, et ad hoc, les règles. O— il peut donc gagner ou perdre. Et si les désillusions ne tardent pas à venir, quand on découvre que les chiffres sont parfois aussi manipulables que les mots - c'est-à-dire qu'on peut tricher à ce jeu, impunément et, ce qui est bien plus grave, inconsciemment - cela ne pourrait mettre en cause l'existence même des règles. D'o— l'effet sécurisant du jeu quantitatif.

Curieusement, cela l'apparente à une autre activité historiographique réputée pourtant comme son contraire, à savoir la recherche en archives. Dans les deux cas, la conviction d'avoir affaire "à du solide", matériel dans le cas des manuscrits, méthodologique dans le cas des chiffres, conduit les historiens que nous sommes à une sorte de laisser-aller, ou du moins à une passivité presque émerveillée. D'o— cette production immense de graphiques, tableaux et documents inédits qui, selon leurs producteurs s'auto-suffiraient, s'auto-justifieraient. Personne, dans le camp des quantitativistes comme dans le camp des "archivistes", ne saurait entièrement échapper à ce piège "positiviste". Par la suite, je poserai la question de savoir si la méthode quantitative permet, justement, d'y échapper, même partiellement.

2. La qualité des sources

On insiste toujours sur l'incompatibilité entre la méthode quantitative, démocratique et dénivellatrice par essence, et la culture des élites. Toute mon entreprise est partie de cette tension. Et pourtant, la première spécificité du champ culturel confronté au quantitatif est sa concordance avec les exigences les plus strictes de la méthode. La fiabilité de celle-ci passe par l'homogénéité, la continuité, l'exhaustivité et l'authenticité des séries quantifiées. Or il ne fait pas de doute que la culture savante est l'activité humaine qui permet l'établissement de séries parmi les plus fiables. Car ce sont ses agents qui laissent le plus de traces, par leur hégémonie et parfois leur monopole dans le domaine des signes durables, et d'abord l'écrit. Ecrivains, peintres, clercs, moines, scientifiques, étudiants, maîtres d'école, historiens - la cohorte des agents culturels sert, depuis toujours, de témoin privilégié, souvent unique de ce qui constitue le matériau de l'histoire. D'eux-mêmes, de leurs actions, productions, réflexions, relations - et de leurs contemporains (dans cet ordre). La culture savante présente ainsi ce double avantage de l'importance des sources et de leur qualité : elles sont "directes", car l'oeuvre des agents eux-mêmes ou de leurs semblables, condition que le milieu politico-militaire, non moins documenté par ailleurs, ne remplit point. Autre avantage, et non des moindres, l'intérêt évident et parfois obsessionnel qu'a ce milieu pour sa propre histoire se traduit par une masse d'instruments de travail qui ne demande qu'à être mise sur ordinateur : Index Translationum, Catalogue de la Bibliothèque Nationale, Dictionnaires de ventes d'art (Bénezit, Mireur), Dictionnaire historique des rues de Paris (Hillairet), Répertoire des thèses de Doctorat ès Lettres (A. Maire), Inventaire après décès d'artistes et de collectionneurs français du XVIIIe siècle (D. Wildenstein, et aussi M. Rambaud), Dictionnaire filmographique de la littérature mondiale (H.T. Daisne), "Die Frequenz der deutschen Universit„ten von ihrer Grndung bis zur Gegenwart" (F. Eulenburg), le Corpus Inscriptionem Latino, La Statistique bibliographique de la France sous la Monarchie au 18e siècle (R. Estivals) ; cette gigantesque production remplirait facilement une bibliothèque.

Richesse d'autant plus évidente quand on la compare avec les sources de la culture "populaire". L'opposition est à la fois frustrante et paradoxale : la culture savante, qu'on veut incompatible avec la méthode quantitative, se prête mieux que toute autre à ses exigences ; alors que la culture populaire, que tout prédestine à l'étude quantitative - ne la définit-on pas comme immuable, quasi-intemporelle, collective, massive ? -, ne dispose que de sources disparates, rares, dues au hasard et surtout aux savants. Les collections des contes et des exempla, les efforts les plus avancés en matière de sérialisation de l'imaginaire populaire, en sont l'illustration flagrante.

II. La survie culturelle

1. Définitions opératoires

"La littérature, écrit Goethe, n'est qu'un fragment de fragments. De ce qui a été fait ou dit, une infime partie fut écrite ; de ce qui fut écrit, une infime partie a été retenue" (11). L'érosion frappe toute activité humaine, dont la mémoire : "L'histoire, écrit Maurice Halbwachs dans La mémoire collective, ressemble à un cimetière o— l'espace est mesuré, et o— il faut, à chaque instant, trouver de la place pour de nouvelles tombes" (12), donc en sacrifier d'anciennes. L'histoire n'est pas régie par les lois de la conservation de la matière, mais par celles de la sélection o— la plupart des pertes sont irréversibles.

Il existe plusieurs formes de tri dans l'histoire de la culture (13). Et d'abord le tri matériel. De toute la production antérieure à la Renaissance ne nous reste qu'une partie infime, dérisoire. Or depuis l'invention de l'imprimerie, cet aspect du phénomène "survie" est devenu marginal pour la littérature savante ; moins négligeable en peinture, en musique, en architecture, il est pourtant loin d'avoir ce poids déterminant d'antan.

La "survie" de thèmes, de formes, de situations dramatiques, de compositions, de figures de langage est, de loin l'aspect du problème le plus débattu. Elle l'est à travers la notion d'"influence", incontournable même si elle a été beaucoup critiquée depuis un demi siècle. La continuité d'une culture, son unité, relèvent de l'idée d'un fonds commun auquel chaque individu, chaque groupe, chaque époque ajoute sa part tout en y puisant. D'o—, d'ailleurs, l'idée que "la vraie immortalité littéraire consiste, pour l'individu, à grossir, pour sa petite part, l'héritage de formes et d'idées que chaque génération transmet à la suivante" (14).

Il est tout à fait inutile d'entrer dans ce sujet si vaste, car le parti pris de n'aborder que le quantifiable excluait d'emblée cette survie-là de mes recherches. Prenons, à titre d'exemple, une affirmation dont je crois fermement au bien-fondé : "Les XIXe et XXe siècles sont imprégnés de l'héritage romantique". Pour l'instant, le traitement chiffré de cette affirmation est de l'ordre de l'impensable. Voici le problème des limites de la méthode cruellement posé.

Faute de mieux, pourrait-on dire, c'est la survie nominale - de Cervantès, de Hamlet, de Mozart, de la Vénus de Milo - qui s'imposait comme étant le seul aspect quantifiable du problème. D'o— la première définition opératoire du sujet. Un artiste survit si au moins une des deux conditions suivantes est remplie : ses oeuvres sont lues, écoutées, regardées, et/ou son nom est connu et reconnu. Dans le premier cas, on parlerait de survie de consommation, de survie active ; dans le deuxième, de survie de mémorisation, de survie passive. Ainsi, du contenu de l'oeuvre, de ses rapports avec d'autres oeuvres, des formes diverses de ses réceptions, il n'est point question. Méthode oblige.

Le champ et les modalités de l'enquête ainsi définis, il fallait, a posteriori, les ancrer dans la réalité culturelle ; leur assurer une motivation (justification) réaliste, dans le sens qu'ont donné les Formalistes russes à ce terme (15). Mission d'ailleurs facilement accomplie car, si la survie nominale n'épuise pas le sujet, elle n'est pas négligeable pour autant, bien au contraire. Le survie "anonyme", condition naturelle dans la culture dite "populaire" (16), est presque un oxymore, une contradiction dans les termes de la culture d'élite. Entre Shakespeare et les centaines d'auteurs qui ont fourmillé dans l'Angleterre d'Elisabeth Ière et de Jacques Ier, entre la Vénus de Milo et les innombrables statues et débris antiques, entre Mozart et Salieri même, un fossé est creusé ; un fossé qualitatif, pourrait-on dire : les happy few passent, les autres trépassent. C'est précisément ce passage à la postérité qui était au centre de mes recherches.

Mais la première définition de la survie culturelle reste encore beaucoup trop vague, qui parle d'oeuvres "lues", "écoutées", de nom "connu" et "reconnu" ; mais par qui ? Les quelques noms avancés : Cervantès, Hamlet, Vénus, laissent entendre que la survie dont je parle dépasse largement le milieu "initié". Ma démarche postulait en effet l'existence d'un "bagage culturel moyen", une sorte de vade-mecum de tout homme cultivé ; ou, pour parler plus prudemment, d'une zone de grande fréquence des objets culturels. Donc, deuxième définition : un artiste survit si la consommation de ses oeuvres et/ou la familiarité avec son nom déborde(nt) le milieu spécialisé et touche(nt) un public plus ou moins large - s'il fait partie du bagage culturel moyen.

La problématique ainsi définie, la première étape serait, pour chaque artiste ou chaque oeuvre, de les situer à l'intérieur des bagages successifs, qui iraient du notre - dernière postérité en date - jusqu'à celui de leurs contemporains. Il s'agit donc d'un travail reconstitutif, qui devrait aboutir à une série d'images arrêtées de la mémoire et de la consommation culturelles. Et dans chacune de ces images on détecterait la présence et la position du nom étudié. C'est à partir d'une série importante de postérités qu'on peut essayer de découvrir les règles qui commandent la sélection culturelle.

Mais avant d'arriver là, il fallait trouver la démarche adéquate pour la reconstitution des bagages culturels moyens successifs. Pour les temps présents, il existe des sondages qui renseignent sur le dénominateur culturel commun d'une société, même s'ils sont très peu nombreux et si leur fiabilité laisse à désirer. Mais l'absence de sondages analogues pour des périodes moins récentes - lire : d'il y a plus de quinze ans - enlève toute utilité à ce type d'instrument, car la légitimité de la démarche passe obligatoirement par l'homogénéité des sources. On était donc appel‚ à chercher des manifestations indirectes du consensus culturel, des signes extérieurs de succès (survie active) et de notoriété (survie passive). Or une telle entreprise n'est pensable que grâce à l'extraordinaire richesse évoquée plus haut. C'est ainsi qu'on dispose de sources assez fiables sur les tirages, nombre de représentations, entrées, prix de ventes, prêts, pour ce qui est de la consommation culturelle ; programmes scolaires, thèses, noms de rues, encyclopédies, timbres, manuels de tout genre, pour les réputations. Bref, tout ce qui permet de constater - et de mesurer - la présence d'un nom sur le marché de la pratique et de la mémoire culturelles.

2. Logique des flux, logique des stocks

Deux des spécificités de la rencontre du quantitatif et du culturel ont déjà été citées : l'exceptionnelle fiabilité des sources culturelles qui permet la constitution de séries particulièrement homogènes, et la soi-disant "incompatibilité d'essence" entre les deux. Pire : le caractère sacrilège d'une démarche qui refuse à Goethe, à Vermeer l'analyse thématique, esthétique, structurelle, en les réduisant aux chiffres de tirages, de citations, de prix de ventes, de noms de rues. Nous aurons à revenir sur ce thème. Ici, je n'insisterai que sur la résistance d'origine purement méthodologique du culturel confronté au quantitatif, que j'attribuerais au caractère cumulatif, voire inexhaustible, de la production culturelle. En d'autres termes, le produit culturel n'est réductible à aucune date, que ce soit celle de sa fabrication, création, lancement, réception, acceptation, implantation (et aussi déformation, déclin, disparition, réapparition). Une comparaison, simplificatrice, avec la production alimentaire peut être assez suggestive à cet égard. Pour le dire rapidement, en économie de base, production égale consommation, avec des marges peu importantes ; de plus, les deux sont quasi-simultanées. Dans la culture, en revanche, production et consommation sont loin d'être équivalentes. Les deux se débordent mutuellement car, d'une part, une énorme quantité de produits culturels ne trouvent jamais preneur, de l'autre, le même produit est souvent reconsommé. Il est rare qu'on mange une pomme de terre de l'année précédente, alors qu'il n'est que trop fréquent qu'on lise un livre du siècle dernier. Et ce qui est encore plus important dans cette comparaison, la pomme de terre disparaît avec sa consommation, la récolte de la saison qui suit est donc appelée à la remplacer ; alors que le livre, le film, le tableau n'existent que par leur consommation, et la production culturelle qui suit vient donc s'y ajouter.

Le modèle du remplacement (renouvellement), cher aux démographes est, en histoire quantitative, à la fois postulat et découverte majeure. Mais comment quantifier le modèle cumulatif ? Autant l'ignorer, ce qui revient à traiter la production culturelle à travers un modèle propre à l'économie de base et à la démographie. Voici trois exemples.

L'étude de Gaby et Michel Vovelle sur les autels des âmes du Purgatoire (17) est certainement une de celles qui ont fait date dans la quantification des mentalités. L'analyse porte sur quelque cent vingt églises provençales o— l'on trouve ces autels (sur 250 églises examinées). L'"analyse thématique chronologique de la composition des tableaux (voir le tableau récapitulatif) consiste en un comptage de cinq macro-thèmes iconographiques : Saint-Michel, Vierge, Christ, Dieu, Saints intercesseurs, chacun étant subdivisé (Vierge + enfant, Christ adolescent, etc.). La présence d'un thème et surtout sa fréquence dans la production picturale d'une période servent aux auteurs à reconstituer une évolution à rythmes variables quant aux visions de la mort en Provence du XVe au XXe siècle. Je ne m'attarderai ni sur la périodisation en tranches de soixante ans, qui pose pourtant problème, ni sur le postulat du miroir : les tableaux comme reflet de la sensibilité religieuse ou esthétique du moment, pourtant tout aussi problématique (18), mais plutôt sur la périodisation thématique. Pour G. et M. Vovelle, chaque période - Concile de Trente, âge proto-classique, baroque ... - n'est caractérisée que par les particularités de sa propre production iconographique (moins de Saints intercesseurs, plus de Trinité, etc.). Or la dernière couche thématique n'efface pas celles qui la précèdent, elle s'y ajoute. L'image de la mort des contemporains ne saurait donc être réduite aux tableaux produits de leurs temps, même si ceux-là sont plus significatifs ; la vraie image est une sorte de "somme" a-mathématique de la production contemporaine et des tableaux hérités du passé et auxquels ils n'ont cessé d'être exposés tous les dimanches au moins.

L'enquête pionnière de François Furet, "La 'librairie' du royaume de France au 18e siècle" (19), part aussi du postulat du "miroir" qui cherche "les grands points de convergence entre une société et sa production écrite" (p. 4). L'enquête quantitative est rendue possible par la comptabilité bureaucratique du livre, mise en place par l'Etat vers 1720, et à laquelle on doit les registres des privilèges et des permissions tacites accordés aux imprimeurs jusqu'à la Révolution. Les trois sondages effectués par F. Furet lui ont permis de "reconstituer" l'évolution de la production livresque par catégories : Théologie, Droit, Histoire, Sciences et Arts, Belles-Lettres (20). Le résultat le plus marquant, et le plus commenté, de l'étude de F. Furet f–t la baisse de la production religieuse : quelque 35 % de la production globale en 1723-1727, encore 27 % en 1750-1754, mais 10 % en 1784-1788 (p. 21). Selon Furet, cela tend à déplacer "la désacralisation d'un monde" de la première moiti‚ du siècle - l'hypothèse de Daniel Mornet - vers la fin de l'ancien régime (p. 20).

Si ces chiffres sont éloquents, leur interprétation exacte n'est guère aisée, et cela entre autres pour la raison évoquée plus haut. Certes, on ne saurait contester l'effritement de la production religieuse. Mais peut-on en déduire une homologie parfaite entre le rythme de la production et celui de la déchristianisation ? Rien n'est moins s–r. Le titre même de l'article de Furet est tout à fait suggestif à cet égard, qui parle de "librairie". Car les librairies, dans le sens moderne du terme, offrent à leur clientèle un choix qui va du plus récent, qui vient de paraître, au plus ancien, avec des dosages qui changent selon les librairies et selon les périodes. Or nous savons que la longévité moyenne des livres - titres et même tirages - était, au XVIIIe siècle, largement supérieure à celle d'aujourd'hui ; c'est ainsi que les inventaires d'imprimeurs révèlent des stocks parfois vieux de quelques dizaines d'années, ce qui est inconcevable de nos jours. Il s'ensuit que les 10 % des années 1784-1788 ne représentent que la dernière couche d'une production livresque pluriséculaire o— la religion a eu ses hauts (plus de 50 % au XVe siècle) et ses bas (17 % à Paris en 1549) (21) ; production dont les diverses couches coexistent là o— les livres sont étalés : chez les imprimeurs, les libraires, les bouquinistes, dans des bibliothèques semi-publiques et privées - et dans la conscience collective des lecteurs.

Voici deux exemples typiques. Anne-Marie Merland a analys‚ le fonds des libraires parisiens De Bure, père et fils, vers 1777. Sur cinquante titres, le plus récent datait de 1772 ; 12 ouvrages avaient entre 5 et 10 ans, 14 entre 10 et 20 ans, 15 entre 20 et 30 ans et 9 trente ans et plus (le nombre d'exemplaires était, respectivement, 11.500, 8.000, 4.500, 3.000) (22). Le catalogue pour la vente de la bibliothèque de Dortus de Mairan, secrétaire perpétuel de l'Académie des Sciences, mort en 1771, comporte 3.400 ouvrages. Or l'analyse de Daniel Roche révèle que 15,7 % seulement dataient d'après 1750 ; 47 % d'avant 1700 (23).

Les historiens ne se tiennent qu'à la date de production pour une raison très simple : l'aspect cumulatif de la culture est inquantifiable. Il y a pourtant un domaine qui permet de mesurer la reconsommation : les "performed arts", le théâtre, la musique, l'opéra, et même le cinéma. J'en ai fait l'expérience en retravaillant l'inventaire d'A. Joannidès, La Comédie-Française de 1680 à 1920 : Tableau des représentations par auteurs et par pièces (24). 2.236 pièces ont été jouées à la Comédie Française entre 1680 et 1920 : en tout 149.527 représentations. On pourrait aborder ces pièces en ne tenant compte que de la date des premières, à la Comédie Française ou ailleurs. Il serait toutefois hasardeux de limiter à cette date la valeur d'indice culturel et social d'une pièce : pourquoi privilégier à ce point 1664, année de la première de Tartuffe, représenté 2.910 fois à la seule Comédie Française entre 1680 et 1978 ? 1775, celle du Barbier de Séville représenté 1.122 fois depuis ? 1847, celle d'Un Caprice, le long-seller d'Alfred de Musset avec 1.154 représentations ? Sans parler de Marivaux, récupéré par la Comédie Française après sa mort pour devenir une de ses valeurs sûres. Dans l'histoire de la troupe, il existe quelque soixante auteurs, de Molière à Courteline en passant par Boursault, La Chaussée, Ponsard, dont les pièces sont jouées constamment entre un et trois siècles après leur entrée au répertoire ! A la limite, le tri opéré sur le répertoire du passé est encore plus révélateur des sensibilités d'une société que son exposition à la production contemporaine ; d'o— l'intérêt d'une histoire socio-culturelle de la postérité, dont j'ai esquissé les grandes lignes dans ma thèse.

Le théâtre et l'opéra en général, la Comédie Française et l'Académie royale de Musique (l'Opéra de Paris, dont le répertoire a été étudié quantitativement par William Weber) (25) en particulier, sont des champs extrêmement privilégiés. D'autres ne le sont point. On connaît le caractère partiel, fortuit, peu fiable des chiffres de tirages, de ventes, de prêts, d'entrées. Le constat est pourtant valable partout : une pièce, un livre, un tableau, une idée ne sauraient être réduits à leur date de "naissance", ni l'univers culturel d'une société à la production contemporaine.

III. L'extériorité de la démarche

Toute conflictuelle qu'elle est, la rencontre du quantitatif et du culturel a bel et bien lieu. Et c'est peut-être son caractère problématique qui la rend assez révélatrice de la méthode quantitative en général car elle en grossit les traits constitutifs. Deux de ces traits déterminent, selon moi, à la fois les limites et les possibilités de la démarche :

1. Quantifier la culture est avant tout un acte de réaction, de refus. On l'a déjà dit.

2. Quantifier, c'est soumettre les phénomènes à une logique qui leur est extérieure par définition.

Le deuxième point mérite qu'on s'y attarde. Les sciences humaines contemporaines, en premier lieu l'histoire, ont pour attitude caractéristique une méfiance grandissante envers toute tentative de reconstituer l'objet de l'intérieur. L'opacité de l'objet, son altérité rendent à la fois suspecte et dérisoire la prétention de "parler au nom" de la société qu'on étudie. Jamais, semble-t-il, la distance entre sujet et objet, donc le poids du sujet-historien, n'a-t-elle été vécue d'une façon aussi aigu‰ qu'aujourd'hui.

Or le reproche fait à ce qui est devenu la pratique "qualitative" de l'histoire est précisément le glissement trop peu contrôlé - est-il vraiment contrôlable ? - du sujet-historien à l'objet historique, de l'extérieur à l'intérieur. Même les historiens qui font de l'altérité le fondement même de leur métier, ainsi les médiévistes qui suivent l'enseignement de Marc Bloch, ne parviennent que très rarement à échapper à ce va-et-vient peu conscient. Il en résulte un discours pour le moins ambigu, pour ne pas dire troublant, o— historien et objet sont inextricablement liés.

A ce mal il existe toute une gamme de remèdes. Le plus simple, mais aussi le plus radical, serait de revendiquer l'extériorité de l'historien, de l'assumer, et de s'assurer d'une méthode qui serve de sorte de garde-fou contre le glissement trop facile dans la pseudo-reconstitution. C'est ainsi que je propose d'interpréter le pari quantitatif, tel qu'il se manifeste dans les trois étapes logiques de la démarche : série, grille, juxtaposition (i.e. recherche de corrélations).

La constitution d'une série : registres paroissiaux, enregistrements des testaments, Index Translationum, baux de dîmes, autels des âmes du Purgatoire, le groupement de données sous un titre, dans un type de sources est toujours un acte taxinomique. C'est bien le sens de la condition d'homogénéité exigée de toute série. Celle-ci met côte à côte des phénomènes disparates mais conformes à un ou plusieurs critères définis par une instance extérieure, l'Etat, l'Eglise, la communauté, l'historien. On la voudrait l'équivalent du groupe mathématique et de l'espèce zoologique ; mais la série historique n'est jamais "naturelle". Tout au plus pourrions-nous parler, d'une façon peu précise, de séries plus ou moins arbitraires, donc de critères de classification plus ou moins observables et constitutifs. Disons-le tout de suite, dans la pratique, ce sont les séries culturelles qui trahissent le plus l'arbitraire qui commande toute série. Il serait pourtant erroné d'y voir forcément une faiblesse. Par la suite, j'irai jusqu'à prétendre que ce faisant, l'histoire quantitative de la culture exploite mieux le potentiel de la méthode.

La grille : âge de la première grossesse, mois de décès, couleur des yeux, nombre de spectateurs, date d'entrée dans le programme du secondaire : l'historien applique à la série un questionnaire. Il se borne à un nombre limité de variables. La créativité - lire : l'arbitraire - du chercheur devient alors flagrante, qui produit à son tour des séries : filles enceintes avant quinze ans, adultes morts en ao–t, conscrits aux yeux gris, films ayant enregistré plus d'un million d'entrées en région parisienne, écrivains du Moyen Age et du XIXe siècle qui ne font partie du cursus que vers 1880. Car "o— pourraient-ils jamais se rencontrer, sauf dans la voix immatérielle qui prononce leur énumération, sauf sur la page qui la transcrit ?" (26).

La juxtaposition des résultats (la recherche des corrélations) : c'est la phase ultime de la démarche, sa raison d'être principale. Il est donc tout à fait raisonnable que l'historien s'y sente enfin, et définitivement, libéré des contraintes "réalistes", qu'il mette côte à côte les courbes les plus hétérogènes, les plus insolites. Alphabétisation et urbanisation, certes, mais aussi alphabétisation, couleur des yeux, stature et climat, mais aussi scolarisation universitaire, indice des prix de gros et nombre de fonctionnaires d'Etat et d'Eglise. L'existence, et parfois même l'absence de corrélation significative justifieraient largement cet "éclectisme".

Le double conditionnement de la démarche, son extériorité et son caractère "militant", est à la fois cause d'échec et source de richesse. L'échec - car échec il y a - se situe dans le passage du descriptif à l'explicatif qui s'y fait péniblement - ou pas du tout ! C'est une constance dans la pratique et dans la lecture du quantitatif que cette impression de décalage entre les résultats et l'analyse. Il est encore plus fréquent qu'on se contente des résultats : tableaux, graphiques, courbes deviennent alors des signes patents de la "scientificité" de la démarche, tout le reste risquant de corrompre la pureté du chiffre. Dans d'autres cas, le traitement chiffré de la réalité et son analyse coexistent dans le même texte, mais ne communiquent pas ; ce qui confirme beaucoup dans l'appréhension de voir le quantitatif réduit à une sorte de convention, peu motivée par l'argumentation.

"Le chiffre est muet, il faut savoir le faire parler" (27) ; or pour "le faire parler", qu'on le veuille ou non, on retombe inévitablement dans le non-quantifié ; pire : dans le non-quantifiable. Voici, à titre d'exemple, deux travaux quantitatifs dont personne ne contestera la valeur : Pierre Chaunu (28) explique les faibles taux de renouvellement démographique en Normandie par les taux élevés d'alphabétisation, de cathéchisation, et aussi par "une théologie morale néo-augustinienne liée à une philosophie post-cartésienne largement diffusée par les relais nouvellement mis en place [et qui] s'intègre à une sensibilité populaire favorable au malthusianisme ascétique". Ainsi, l'explication ramène Chaunu à la case départ, c'est-à-dire au type de discours qu'il rejeta fermement en se lançant dans le quantitatif ... Ou Willem Frijhoff (29), qui unit la nette augmentation du nombre d'intellectuels dans l'Empire allemand après la guerre de Trente Ans à une corrélation d'ordre qualitatif : "C'est justement le surplus pléthorique d'intellectuels sans ressources propres qui a favoris‚ la naissance et l'éclosion d'une bureaucratie puissante et compétente au service exclusif des Etats". Une hypothèse séduisante, mais dont l'exploitation ne saurait passer par la quantification.

Cette tension entre le descriptif et l'explicatif a été pressentie par les historiens dès les premières tentatives quantitatives. La conclusion de l'article d'Henri Berr, "La méthode statistique et la question des grands hommes", paru dans La Nouvelle Revue en 1890, en témoigne (30) :

"Ce n'est pas que la statistique ne rende pas des services considérables - soit qu'elle précise des faits connus, soit qu'elle contrôle des vérités pressenties, soit qu'elle révèle des lois ignorées [...]. Mais qu'on remonte de l'effet à la cause ou qu'on descende de la cause à l'effet, il est évident qu'elle ne suffit pas elle-même. On a beau "quantifier" les résultats d'une activité, la force active reste inconnue, mystérieuse [...]. Le chiffre est muet, a dit un statisticien allemand, il faut savoir le faire parler : voilà le rôle de la psychologie. Il y a donc une méthode qui étudie le dehors, et une autre qui étudie le dedans".

L'histoire quantitative a presque un siècle de pratique quand F. Furet présente l'enquête "La 'librairie' du royaume de France au 18e siècle" :

"Il s'agit d'analyses délibérément extérieures à la mélodie unique de chaque livre. Aussi pourront-elles être soupçonnées d'excessive simplification. Il suffira de répondre, pour éviter un faux débat, que si rien ne peut être substitué à l'étude des textes eux-mêmes, ce type de recherches peut faire surgir avec plus d'évidence - et moins de présupposés théoriques - les grands points de convergence entre une société et sa production écrite. Il ne doit être entendu que comme une préface et un cadre à l'analyse proprement littéraire. Rien de plus, mais rien de moins" (31).

 "Une préface et un cadre à l'analyse" : mais comment les articuler ? L'absence de règles en la matière constitue de loin l'aspect le plus frustrant de la démarche quantitative. Toute ma thèse en est d'ailleurs l'illustration. J'en citerai ici deux exemples qui ne cessent de me hanter.

Ma première tentative quantitative a eu pour objet l'Index Translationum, l'inventaire annuel des traductions parues à travers le monde depuis 1932 (32). La grille, arbitraire, appliquée à cette série a révélé le rôle insolite de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale dans ce marché : les années 1930 voient une poussée de la littérature "populaire", de Edgar Wallace à Edgar Rice Burroughs ; elle est freinée et inversée par la guerre, car dans les années 1948-1955, ce sont de nouveau les auteurs "sérieux" qui dominent le marché ; puis, comme si l'effet de la guerre s'estompait, série noire, science fiction, bandes dessinées, livres pour enfants et "romans roses" reconquièrent "la bourse mondiale de la traduction" (voir graphique). Seul le quantitatif aurait permis de découvrir et de documenter cette évolution non-linéaire ; mais comment l'expliquer ? Tout recours aux études de cas (destins particuliers, biographies d'éditeurs, analyse textuelle de la critique) ou à cette entité si mal définie qu'est la "conscience collective" est impossible : le purisme idéologique de la méthode et sa position toujours extérieure aux phénomènes l'interdisent.

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Dans une autre étude (33), j'ai posé le problème du "phénix culturel", c'est-à-dire de l'idée universellement répandue que "nul n'est prophète en son pays", ni en son temps ; que les génies de l'art devraient donc leur réputation aux étrangers et à la postérité. Quels sont les fondements factuels de cette idée ? La méthode quantitative est certainement la mieux adaptée pour ce type d'interrogation. On s'est donc penché sur la carrière posthume des peintres français (1650-1750) présents aujourd'hui sur le marché de la mémoire, et sur l'accueil qui leur fut réservé par leurs contemporains. Les résultats de cette enquête (voir tableau I), ainsi que ceux de deux enquêtes complémentaires sur les musiciens et les écrivains du XVIIIe siècle, sont sans équivoque : tous les artistes reconnus en 1985 l'étaient déjà de leur vivant ; même les frères Le Nain et Georges de La Tour, évincés de la mémoire culturelle après leur mort et redécouverts respectivement vers 1850 et 1915. Ainsi, et pour reprendre ce qui vient d'être dit plus haut, seul le quantitatif aurait permis la réfutation définitive de ce qu'on peut légitimement appeler le mythe du génie méconnu. Mais, tout comme mon étude sur les traductions, celle-ci a une conclusion ouverte : "Reste l'essentiel', le mythe du phénix culturel : d'o— vient-il, qui l'a inventé, comment est-il diffusé, comment surtout expliquer que tout le monde y croie et cela sur la base de deux ou trois cas discutables ? ... C'est donc à une histoire sociale de la représentation de la postérité que notre étude pourrait conduire". Ainsi, la méthode quantitative appelle à être dépassée par une approche non-quantitative. Refuser cette logique condamne le chercheur à une sorte de "positivisme haut de gamme" ; l'accepter le condamne à se contredire. Cela explique la grande fréquence, dans les études quantitatives, de formules du type "il serait intéressant de continuer ...", "ce qui inciterait à enquêter ...", "il faudrait s'interroger ...", qui frustrent le lecteur de la suite. Tout se passe comme si la méthode quantitative n'était pas compatible avec l'exploitation de ses résultats. Pour revenir aux textes de Berr et de Furet cités plus haut, ce décalage est d'autant plus visible dans les études culturelles que celles-ci présentent des alternatives au quantitatif qui ont fait leurs preuves. Jusqu'ici, les limites de la démarche quantitative ont été soulignées. Ses possibilités restent à l'être.

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IV. L'histoire quantitative comme histoire expérimentale

"Contrairement à ce que j'avais pu croire, écrit François Jacob la démarche scientifique ne consistait pas à observer, à accumuler des données expérimentales et en tirer une théorie. Elle commençait par l'invention d'un monde possible, pour le confronter, par l'expérimentation, au monde extérieur. Et c'était ce dialogue sans fin entre l'imagination et l'expérience qui permettait de se former une représentation toujours plus fine de ce qu'on appelle 'la réalité'" (34). Ainsi, pour mieux connaître le monde on le soumet à des épreuves que la "nature" lui épargne. N'est-ce pas le sens même de la notion de "laboratoire", de "conditions de laboratoire" ?

Ainsi définie, l'activité scientifique s'apparente à l'art (expérimental, d'avant-garde), tel que l'ont théorisé - et idéologisé - les Formalistes russes (35). Je fais évidemment allusion à l'une de leurs notion-clé, l'ostranenie ("estrangement", rendre étrange) : "Les objets perçus plusieurs fois, écrit Victor Chklovski dans son fameux article "L'art comme procédé" de 1917, commencent à être perçus par une reconnaissance : l'objet se trouve devant nous, nous le savons mais nous ne le voyons plus". "L'automatisation de la perception avale les objets, les habits, les meubles, la femme et la peur de la guerre". "Le but de l'art, c'est de donner une sensation de l'objet comme vision et non pas comme reconnaissance ; le procédé de l'art est le procédé de singularisation des objets et le procédé qui consiste à obscurcir la forme, à augmenter la difficulté et la durée de la perception" (36) (c'est moi qui souligne). Ainsi, la désautomatisation - notion capitale dans la théorie formaliste - passe par la défamiliarisation qui refuse à l'objet (au mot) son contexte "naturel" ou plus exactement habituel, o— on a l'habitude de le trouver. Ou, ce qui revient au même, le transmet au lecteur à travers un autre regard : celui d'un cheval chez Tolstoï, d'un débile chez Faulkner, d'un nain chez Grass.

Le rapprochement ne s'arrête pas là. Ainsi, fait significatif, Jacob et Chklovski, mais aussi la phénoménologie et l'histoire contemporaine mettent la réalité entre guillemets ou entre parenthèses : "ce qu'on appelle 'la réalité'", "sensation de l'objet comme vision", le terme "représentation" qui domine le discours historique actuel. En science, en art et en histoire la réalité n'est pas là, quelque part, à découvrir, qui préexiste au regard plus ou moins passif ; elle n'a à la limite de sens que dans la rencontre, forcément violente car "contre nature" entre sujet et objet. Et c'est au sujet, chercheur ou artiste, à déterminer les termes de cette rencontre.

Comme tout rapprochement, celui du scientifique, de l'artiste et de l'historien a des limites. D'abord, les définitions de la "réalité" tout comme celles des guillemets qui l'entourent diffèrent d'une activité à l'autre. Ensuite, l'historien ne dispose pas de son matériau comme le biologiste des bactéries, ou l'écrivain des mots et de la syntaxe. L'expérimentation en histoire est condamnée à rester spéculative, sans espoir de confirmer ses hypothèses comme c'est le cas en physique théorique, par exemple. Ainsi, la notion de "laboratoire historique" est largement métaphorique (mais rentable). Cette réserve, importante, ne devrait toutefois pas cacher l'homologie entre ces trois types d'expérimentation qui reposent tous sur la décontextualisation : refuser à l'objet son contexte "normal" pour mieux, ou autrement, le connaître.

Ma thèse, on l'a sans doute compris, est que l'histoire quantitative, par son extériorité fondamentale à la réalité (avec ou sans guillemets), relève de la logique expérimentale dont on vient d'esquisser les grandes lignes ; et que pour la rentabiliser pleinement, il ne faut surtout pas se laisser "intimider" par la réalité et cela, par ce qui n'est paradoxe qu'en apparence, afin de mieux la cerner. C'est une attitude qui a un côté jeu indéniable, qui codifie l'arbitraire : jeu foncièrement agressif, comme toute confrontation entre deux logiques, voire entre ordre et désordre.

1. Comparer

La comparaison est sans aucun doute l'expression pure du pouvoir de l'historien. Elle décontextualise par définition, en mettant côte à côte, dans ce lieu idéal et abstrait qu'est l'étude historique, ce qui ne l'est pas forcément dans la réalité. Or, au nom d'une maxime floue, "Comparons des choses comparables", nombreux sont les historiens qui voudraient limiter le comparatisme aux seules "sociétés à la fois voisines et contemporaines, sans cesse influencées les unes par les autres, soumises dans leur développement, en raison précisément de leur proximité et de leur synchronisme, à l'action des mêmes grandes causes, et remontant, partiellement du moins, à une origine commune" - on a reconnu le type d'histoire comparée préconisé par Marc Bloch dans son article de 1928 (37). C'est pourtant un appauvrissement extrême de restreindre la comparaison aux voisins de surface ; on voit en effet mal Darwin développer ses théories avec cette devise comme guide. Bloch lui-même reconnaît la légitimité d'un comparatisme "non-référentiel" (mes termes) : "On choisit des sociétés séparées dans le temps et dans l'espace par des distances telles que les analogies, observées de part et d'autre, entre tel ou tel phénomène, ne peuvent, de toute évidence, s'expliquer ni pas des influences mutuelles, ni par aucune communauté d'origine" (38). Démarche qui permet de découvrir "la tendance de l'esprit humain à réagir, dans des circonstances analogues, de façon à peu près pareille" (39). J'irais plus loin encore, en opposant ces deux types de comparatisme à un troisième, dont l'objectif est de mieux comprendre A et B en les observant conjointement, quitte à découvrir, après coup, des rapports de réalité entre eux. Ainsi, toute comparaison est légitime, pourvu qu'on ne lui fasse pas dire plus qu'elle ne le permet : induire, par exemple, d'une façon mécanique des contacts de la constatation de similitudes (40).

Le quantitatif, comme toute autre démarche analytique, repose sur la comparaison : "De tous les traits hétérogènes d'un objet, on n'en abstrait qu'un. Les réalités de qualité différente : un pas humain, une pièce de tissu, une route qui va vers la ville, la hauteur d'un arbre, s'avèrent commensurables à condition qu'on les examine d'un seul point de vue : celui de leur longueur" ; alors que dans la pensée qualitative, "c'est la synthèse de tous les traits d'un objet qui constitue sa qualité. Une pièce de lin, une route, un arbre ou une borne n'ont, en ce sens, rien en commun. Ces choses étant totalement différentes l'une de l'autre, il faut les mesurer chacune à l'aide d'une mesure appropriée" (41). Ainsi, la constitution d'une série, puis le questionnement de cette série, enfin la juxtaposition des variables, sont trois procédés comparatifs typiques.

L'historien quantitatif, tout comme son collègue comparatiste, refuse d'aller au bout de la logique de sa méthode ; il cherche obstinément à ancrer la démarche dans la réalité. C'est ainsi qu'on devrait interpréter la passivité relative des historiens dans la constitution des séries. Passivité qui se traduit par une préférence évidente pour les séries déjà existantes, qu'elles soient institutionnelles - registres paroissiaux, archives militaires -, ou même érudites - "Tableaux des représentations à la Comédie Française", "Catalogue de la Bibliothèque Nationale". Comme si le fait de préexister accordait à ces séries une sorte de "naturel".

Faute de séries disponibles, préfabriquées, le chercheur est bien obligé de les constituer. Mais, là aussi, il prend grand soin d'insister sur le caractère reconstitutif de sa démarche, comme s'il s'agissait de retrouver une série "idéale". Ce faisant, on tombe très facilement dans le piège du formalisme, ou du nominalisme, qui consiste à regrouper les phénomènes désignés par le même nom : "manuel scolaire", "encyclopédie", "traduction" (42). Or, comme le dit François Furet avec quelque exagération, "Il n'y a rien d'aussi différent d'un livre qu'un autre livre" (43). Dans la culture, o— les objets n'existent qu'à travers leur appropriation, la "même" oeuvre renvoie souvent à des appropriations divergentes, voire contradictoires. Voir la Bible, cas paradigmatique, Les Voyages de Gulliver, la Ve Symphonie de Beethoven.

Mon étude du système dénominatif urbain français (44) illustre bien ce problème incontournable. Des rues portent des noms depuis le moyen âge. Il m'a donc paru naturel d'analyser des séries longues de noms, ainsi "les noms de rues à Paris de 1200 à 1985", facilement (re)constituables à partir de plusieurs instruments de travail (en particulier le Dictionnaire de Jacques Hillairet déjà cité). Puis de leur appliquer une grille - j'ai opté pour le champ sémantique des noms : religion, politique, vie municipale, art et lettres, etc.

A posteriori, les fondements même de ma démarche me paraissent pour le moins contestables. Je suis parti de l'idée que le phénomène "nom de rue" était toujours égal à lui-même, qu'il remplissait plus ou moins les mêmes fonctions socio-urbaines depuis 1200 jusqu'à nos jours. Il n'en est rien. On peut distinguer au moins deux étapes dénominatives qui ont très peu en commun, la notion même de "nom de rue" y change complètement de signification. Résumons cette histoire. Jusqu'à une date assez récente, entre 1760 et 1850, on n'habitait pas la rue X ou Y, même si ces rues portaient des noms selon les plans anciens ; mais face à l'Eglise Saint-Jacques, au Quartier des Lombards ou celui des Bouchers, on habitait surtout une maison désignée par son enseigne. Autrement dit, le nom d'une rue n'avait pratiquement pas de fonctions sociales : la grande majorité des habitants ignorait jusqu'à son existence. Pour que le nom de la rue devienne partie constitutive de la définition - et de l'auto-définition - spatiale du citoyen, il fallait passer par la révolution administrative : révolution incarnée par la rationalisation de l'état civil et de la poste (45). Peut-on alors considérer comme homogène une série qui enveloppe les noms de rues depuis le moyen âge jusqu'à nos jours ? De même que, et pour revenir au paradigme économique, une courbe des prix du pain en France qui irait de 1300 à 1985 n'aurait pas de sens, car elle couvrirait l'histoire du pain dans deux phases complètement différentes : "pain", aliment de base, souvent unique, de la plupart des hommes, et "pain", élément quantitativement secondaire de la nourriture.

2. Questionner

Il est impossible de résoudre ce problème, il est surtout impossible d'en tenir pleinement compte : la pratique scientifique repose en effet sur la classification formelle. Il y a pourtant d'autres modes de groupement, de sérialisation, que l'extériorité de la méthode quantitative permet d'effectuer. On est tenté de citer J.L. Borgès, qui "cite" "une certaine encyclopédie chinoise" o— il est écrit que "les animaux se divisent en a) appartenance à l'Empereur, b) embaumés, c) apprivoisés, d) cochons de lait [...], i) qui s'agitent comme des fous [...], n) qui de loin semblent des mouches". Ce texte, longuement et brillamment analysé par Michel Foucault dans la "Préface" des Mots et des Choses, est avant tout un rappel du pouvoir du classificateur : "o— pourraient-ils jamais se rencontrer, sauf dans la voix immatérielle qui prononce leur énumération, sauf sur la page qui la transcrit ?" (46). Je le perçois aussi comme une sorte d'invitation. Il serait en effet intéressant d'étudier, à côté de la classe des "cochons de lait", celle des animaux "appartenant à l'Empereur", des "apprivoisés", voire même de ceux qu'on dessine "avec un pinceau très fin en poils de chameau". Ou, pour revenir à la culture, le groupe des artistes de tous genres qui ont bénéficié de l'aide directe du pouvoir, celui des produits culturels ayant obtenu un succès inespéré (47), celui des livres qu'on ne pouvait au XVIIIe siècle, pour des raisons diverses, avouer avoir lu (48).

La pauvreté de ces exemples, et plus encore leur caractère peu opérationnel dans le cadre des études quantitatives, pourraient découler des limites de mon imagination. Il est, malheureusement, plus raisonnable d'y voir les limites de la méthode, condamnée à ne traiter que des séries taxinomiques, nominales, et à laisser à d'autres les séries fonctionnelles - "qualitatives" pourrait-on dire.

C'est donc dans le jeu des variables que l'historien quantitatif peut profiter pleinement de cette liberté de l'arbitraire, de son arbitraire. Les questions qu'on peut poser à une série de données sont infinies. Telles sont aussi les mises en relations des réponses. Et pourtant, ceux qui pratiquent la quantification de la culture ont trop souvent tendance, même à ce stade, à ancrer leurs grilles dans la réalité qu'ils étudient.

Soit l'ensemble, imposant, d'enquêtes quantitatives consacrées à la production et à la réception de l'écrit dans la France du XVIIIe siècle (49). On a soumis aux rudes épreuves du chiffre privilèges, permissions tacites, production en province, journaux, correspondances, bibliothèques privées, fonds de libraires, d'imprimeurs. Depuis 1962, date du lancement de l'enquête collective "Littérature et société au XVIIIe siècle", dirigée par François Furet, les études tendent à adopter une grille de variables, ainsi définie et légitimée par Furet lui-même : "Le classement des ouvrages a été établi selon les critères de l'époque. La Bibliothèque nationale est riche d'un fonds immense d'inventaires de bibliothèques privées du 18e siècle, o— les livres sont répartis dans les cinq grandes catégories du temps : théologie et religion, droit et jurisprudence, histoire, sciences et arts, belles-lettres" (50) (C'est moi qui souligne).

En vérité, cette grille à cinq variables est appliquée pour la première fois par Régine Petit dans son mémoire sur les Bibliothèques des hommes du Parlement de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (1954) (51). Mais c'est l'autorité de la classification de Furet-Roche qui l'impose réellement. En l'espace de quinze ans on l'a appliquée au Journal des Savants et aux Mémoires de Trévoux (52), à la librairie provinciale entre 1778 et 1789 (53), aux Mémoires secrets de Bachaumont, au Journal d'Hémery et à la Correspondance de Grimm (54), à la bibliothèque de Jean-Jacques Dortus de Mairan, en ajoutant néanmoins une sixième catégorie : "philosophie" et en prenant en compte les journaux (55), aux fonds de cinq libraires de Lyon (56), à quarante bibliothèques d'ecclésiastiques parisiens (57), à la librairie en Avignon (58), à l'imprimerie et à la librairie de Rouen, puis de l'Ouest de la France (59). Et la liste n'est pas complète, loin de là.

Il n'est nullement dans mon intention de faire ici le bilan critique et exhaustif de ce dossier unique dans sa richesse et son homogénéité méthodologique (60). Je me contenterais de soulever quelques thèmes qui mériteraient d'être développés ailleurs, et d'abord à attirer l'attention sur le fait que la quintuple classification devenue canonique n'est pas la seule à servir dans les études quantitatives de la culture de l'écrit dans la France du XVIIIe siècle. Ainsi, Jean Meyer analyse les bibliothèques de La noblesse bretonne au XVIIIe siècle (61) à travers une grille à dix catégories : Religion, Voyages, Mémoires, Histoire, Littérature (Moyen-âge, XVIe, XVIIe, XVIIIe siècles), Sciences, Pratiques, Etrangers, Dictionnaires, Paquets (?). Yves Durand propose au contraire une grille à quatorze catégories pour les livres recensés dans les bibliothèques des Fermiers généraux au XVIIIe siècle (62) : Théologie et Piété, Jurisprudence, Finance et Commerce, Fermes, Belles-lettres, Histoire, Art, Philosophie, Sciences, Géographie, Voyages, Médecine, Dictionnaires, Journaux. Plus significatif encore me paraît la classification que propose Daniel Mornet, car elle date de son article de 1910, "Les enseignements des bibliothèques privées (1750-1780)" (63) qui constitue la référence, le modèle dans les études quantitatives de la culture. Or Mornet distingue dix catégories : Histoire, Théologie, Jurisprudence, Romans, Grammaire, Voyages, Politique, Médecine, Histoire naturelle, Physique.

De cinq à quatorze catégories, ces grilles divergentes révèlent le caractère toujours arbitrait d'une classification, même celle attribuée aux contemporains (dont les arbitraires, soit dit en passant, ne divergeaient pas moins que les nôtres ...). Chaque grille renvoie inévitablement aux préoccupations de celui qui la "reconstitue". Ainsi, pour Mornet, il est capital que "l'on ait eu pour 2 romans 1 livre de médecine" ... et que "la rubrique Grammaire (qui comprend pourtant toutes les langues étrangères) ne soit pourtant pas supérieure d'un tiers à celle de l'histoire naturelle, toute voisine elle-même de la rubrique Politique" (64). Alors qu'isoler "Finances et Commerce" et "Fermes", mais aussi "Art", définit la représentation des fermiers qu'a Durand. Curieusement, les cinq (devenues six) catégories de Furet-Roche sont les moins "référentielles" ; on les applique sans égard aucun aux particularités du contexte étudié, mais uniquement par respect d'un idéal méthodologique, celui de l'homogénéité de la grille.

On devrait pourtant aller beaucoup plus loin dans la critique. Le texte fondateur de Daniel Mornet nous y invite vivement :

"La marque essentielle de ces bibliothèques, et celle qui s'impose au premier abord, est qu'elles ne sont jamais spécialisées. Le XVIIIe siècle fut très certainement, par une tendance profonde, un siècle encyclopédique. Le grand ouvrage qui l'ouvre et qui peut-être le domine est le Dictionnaire de Bayle [présent dans 288 bibliothèques sur les 500 étudiées par Mornet]. L'effort décisif qui l'oriente est l'Encyclopédie [82 bibliothèques], et il se ferme par une des plus vastes entreprises de librairie qui ne fut jamais conçue, l'Encyclopédie méthodique de Panckoucke. D'année en année les dictionnaires, qui sont presque toujours des oeuvres de vulgarisation, s'impriment et se multiplient, pour tous les arts et pour toutes les sciences" (65).

Ainsi, on pourrait dire que c'est l'univers intellectuel même du XVIIIe siècle qui résiste aux classifications rigides - même si on les trouve dans les catalogues pour vente des bibliothèques. Ceci expliquerait le fait que Mornet lui-même ne consacre qu'une partie infime de son étude à sa classification "décimale". Les grands découpages qui l'intéressent sont d'un autre ordre : influence des littératures étrangères, et avant tout celle du roman anglais ; présence dans les bibliothèques des "Grands auteurs (contemporains) : Bayle, Buffon (202 sur 500), Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot ; "Minores" : Thémiseul de Saint-Hyacinthe, Mlle de Villeneuve ... ; "Survivances" : Moyen Age, Humanisme, Classicisme.

Si ces "catégories" demandent à être raffinées davantage, la leçon elle-même mérite certainement d'être retenue. Distinguer entre auteurs contemporains et auteurs anciens, entre auteurs français et auteurs étrangers, entre auteurs "sérieux" et auteurs "de divertissements" va dans le sens d'une grille qualitative, fonctionnelle. La liberté que lui laisse l'extériorité de la méthode permet à l'historien quantitatif d'être encore plus imaginatif. La "réalité" elle-même lui offre parfois des modèles "insolites", à l'image de cet inventaire de fonds qu'établit le libraire bordelais Jacques Mongiran-Millanges en 1672 (66). Loin de nos découpages habituels, Mongiran-Millanges répartit ses livres autour de quatre grandes "catégories" :

I.   Mémoire des livres qui sont dans la boutique du Palais ;

II.  Livres que j'ay mis dans la boutique du Palais après la recognaissance que j'ay fait avec Martel, le 28 may 1672 ;

III. Livres qui se sont trouvez dans mon magasin ;

IV.  Livres de classe.

La première "catégorie" étant subdivisée en dix sous-groupes o— interviennent deux variables : le format (in folio, in 4ø, in 8ø, in 12ø et in 16ø - 24ø - 32ø) et la couverture ("reliez" et blanc) ; les livres "reliez" étant plus ou moins groupés autour de deux types de reliures : "veau" et "parchemin". Nous ne sommes pas très loin de cette "certaine encyclopédie chinoise" de Borgès/Foucault.

3. Corréler

C'est bien évidemment dans la recherche de corrélations que l'historien est définitivement libéré des contraintes de la réalité observée ; plus il donne cours à sa fantaisie, plus il risque de faire des découvertes significatives, non triviales. Mais là encore, par paresse, par pudeur, ou pour des raisons différentes, l'histoire quantitative de la culture exploite très peu cette liberté, cette licentia poetica qui en fait la force.

Ainsi l'Histoire sociale des populations étudiantes (67), ouvrage collectif dirigé par Dominique Julia et Jacques Revel. Le premier volume contient des études sur l'Empire, la Bohème, la Pologne, l'Espagne et les Provinces-Unies (le deuxième traitera de la France) : "l'enquête s'est donc inscrite dans une perspective d'histoire comparée qui nous semblait s'imposer" (Présentation). L'ambition des participants était double : "donner une série de mesures, même grossières, de l'importance du phénomène universitaire dans l'Europe moderne [...], replacer les réalités universitaires ainsi mesurées dans le cadre d'une histoire sociale plus large" (ibid.). Or si le premier objectif est largement atteint, grâce à l'application tout à fait remarquable du quantitatif, le deuxième y fait trop souvent défaut. Selon moi, la responsabilité en revient à l'approche fragmentaire des chercheurs, qui ne vont pratiquement jamais au-delà de leur objet déclaré, la population estudiantine : nombres, origines sociales, recrutement géographique, débouchés professionnels. Isoler une catégorie pour mieux l'observer est certes légitime, mais à condition qu'il ne s'agisse que d'une première étape. Comment alors ne pas s'étonner du fait que seul Willem Frijhoff prenne la peine de confronter la population étudiante et la population générale - ce qui lui permet de découvrir la mortalité différentielle en Allemagne pendant la guerre de Trente Ans : l'ensemble de la population perd un tiers de ses effectifs, alors que les étudiants en gagnent un cinquième (pp. 52-57, et supra, p.   ). D'autres indices, d'ordre culturel, sont littéralement absents de toutes les enquêtes ; je pense en particulier aux taux de scolarisation et d'alphabétisation, mais aussi à ceux de l'édition (corrélations entre production écrite et affluence des diverses facultés). Et des huit auteurs, c'est toujours W. Frijhoff qui est le seul à faire intervenir des indices économiques : prix de gros, droits de douane, et intellectuello-économique : brevets d'invention accordés par les Etats Généraux. Plus troublante encore est l'absence de chiffres, ou à défaut, d'estimations, des effectifs des diverses professions, médecins, avocats et maîtres d'école (W. Frijhoff et F. Smahel pour Prague, mis à part). Sans les chiffres des "fonctionnaires", employés de l'Etat, de l'Eglise, des communes, les courbes estudiantines modernes sont difficiles à interpréter (rappelons que le fameux modèle de M.H. Curtis des "intellectuels aliénés" - R. Chartier préfère "frustrés" - repose sur la saturation de la fonction publique, mise en place en Europe entre 1550 et 1650).

Cette attitude fragmentaire, qui consiste à étudier à fond, et avec une érudition exemplaire, une source, une variable, tout en en négligeant d'autres qui paraissent pourtant s'imposer, semble être assez caractéristique des études quantitatives de la culture, même les plus accomplies. L'extraordinaire dossier de l'écrit dans la France du XVIIIe siècle est là pour l'illustrer. Le seul effort systématique pour mettre côte à côte les résultats d'études qui, par leur homogénéité méthodologique, ne semblent faites que pour cela, est celui de Robert Darnton dans un article critique et pessimiste (voir "Patterns de lecture"). Juxtaposition partielle, car l'article a été publié en 1971 et ne tient donc compte que des études antérieures (celles de Meyer et Mornet l'obligeant même à "refaire certains des calculs et à reconvertir quelques-unes des données" (68). Telle ne fut d'ailleurs pas la démarche de Daniel Mornet qui cherchait des corrélations entre la fréquence des romans dans les 500 bibliothèques analysées et les comptes rendus des romans dans le Mercure de France entre 1750 et 1760. On y relève, déjà, un divorce certain entre le go–t "général" (mais pourtant pas populaire) et le go–t "savant". Sur les 86 romans dont parle le Mercure, seuls les romans anglais : Tom Jones, Clarisse Harlowe, Grandisson, Joseph Andrews, etc. figurent aussi dans le hit-parade de la lecture. Et Mornet de conclure : "C'est dire que l'indication du roman dans le Mercure ne précise pas plus son succès et sa valeur d'influence que si l'on relevait au hasard son titre dans un catalogue de bibliothèque" (69) - ce qui me paraît toutefois quelque peu exagéré.

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                             insérer "Patterns de lecture"

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On devrait évidemment aller plus loin, en juxtaposant les séries "livresques" à d'autres séries. Je pense en particulier aux résultats de F. Furet et de J. Brancolini et M.-T. Bouyssy concernant la production différentielle des livres religieux à Paris et en Provence, qu'il serait indispensable de confronter avec les courbes de la "religiosité pratique" telles que les a reconstituées Michel Vovelle dans Piété baroque et déchristianisation (70).

Or on n'a propos‚ ici que les rapprochements quasi-naturels, ceux qui s'imposent ; alors que la méthode quantitative laisse place à une bien plus grande extravagance. Voici, à titre d'exemple, une juxtaposition suggérée - mais non analysée - par le maître de la "Statistique morale", Adolphe d'Angeville. D'Angeville termine l'Essai sur la statistique de la population française, considérée sous quelques-uns de ses rapports physiques et moraux (71) par une série de cartes récapitulatives qui reprennent seize des 127 variables (ou colonnes) qui lui ont servi dans l'enquête. Est-ce un hasard, est-ce volontaire ? La carte numéro 10, celle des "Portes et fenêtres", se trouve face à la carte numéro 11, celle des "Bâtards". En les observant conjointement, on ne peut pas résister à la tentation corrélationnelle ; et on découvre, ainsi, qu'en règle générale - qui souffre, certes, bien des exceptions -, le nombre des bâtards décroît avec le nombre des portes et fenêtres : moins d'ouverture sur l'extérieur, moins de bâtards (la Bretagne, la Vendée, la Corse, le Massif central s'opposeraient ainsi au Nord, à la Normandie, à l'Alsace, au Var et au Rhône - et à Paris ...) (72). Quelle méthode autre que la méthode quantitative aurait permis d'émettre une hypothèse aussi étrange - mais aussi "scientifique" ? (73).

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                   insérer face à face carte numéro 10 et carte numéro 11

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Daniel MILO

E.H.E.S.S.

NOTES

1. "La révolution quantitative et les historiens français : bilan d'une génération (1932-1968)", Le Monde, 25 janvier 1969, repris dans Le territoire de l'historien, Tome I, Paris, Gallimard, 1973, p. 22.

2. "L'historien et l'ordinateur", Le Nouvel Observateur du 8 mai 1968 (!), repris in Le Territoire de l'historien, p. 14.

3. In J. LE GOFF et P. NORA (sous la direction de), Faire de l'histoire, T. I, Nouveaux problèmes, Paris, Gallimard, 1986 (1974), pp. 69-93. FURET est l'auteur d'un autre texte fondateur, "Pour une définition des classes inférieures à l'époque moderne", Annales E.S.C., XVIII (1963), pp. 459-474.

4. Il ne serait peut-être pas inintéressant de faire l'histoire de la "quinzaine quantitative" en France en la rapprochant de la "quinzaine communiste" qui l'a précédée pour les intellectuels. Pour des remarques du même genre on verra Zheng KANG et Datong HUO, "Les premiers signes de la quantification dans l'historiographie chinoise", Histoire & Mesure, I-3/4, 1986, pp. 5-26.

5. "Pour une histoire religieuse sérielle", Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine,  T.XII, janvier-mars 1965, pp. 5-34 ; "Un nouveau champ pour l'histoire sérielle : le quantitatif au troisième niveau", Mélanges Fernand Braudel, Toulouse, 1973, repris dans Histoire quantitative, histoire sérielle, Paris, A. Colin, 1978, pp. 216-230.

6. "La 'librairie' du royaume de France au 18e siècle", dans l'enquête collective qu'il a dirigée, Livre et société dans la France du 18e siècle, Paris, Mouton, 1965, pp. 3-32 (Volume II, Paris, 1970) ; citons aussi l'enquête qu'il a dirigée avec Jacques OZOUF, Lire et écrire : l'alphabétisation des Français de Calvin à Jules Ferry, Paris, Minuit, 1977.

7. Dans Le quantitatif en histoire, article cité, note 3.

8. Dans La révolution quantitative ..., article cité, note 1.

9. Pour une sorte de survol critique de ces problèmes et une petite bibliographie, voir Roger CHARTIER, "Le passé compos‚ : des rapports entre histoire et philosophie" à paraître dans les Cahiers du Musée national d'Art Moderne.

10. François JACOB, La Statue intérieure, Paris, Odile Jacob/Seuil, 1987, p. 277.

11. Cité par F. BALDENSPERGER, Littérature : création, succès, durée, Paris, 1913.

12. Paris, 1950 (posthume), p. 38.

13. Pour le développement des thèmes évoqués ici, voir ma thèse, Aspects de la survie culturelle, Paris, EHESS, 1985, pp. 3-30.

14. Paul STAPFER, Des réputations littéraires, Paris, 1903, T. I, p. 238. Soulignons que Stapfer défend, dans ce livre, l'idée contraire.

15. Boris TOMACHEVSKI, "Thématique", in T. TODOROV, Théorie de la littérature : textes des Formalistes russes, Paris, 1965 (1925), pp. 282-292.

16. L'histoire des Mentalités en fait sa devise, qui privilégie le collectif et son inconscient au détriment de l'individualisé, et qui n'étudie que ce dont personne ne puisse réclamer les "droits d'auteur".

17. Gaby et Michel VOVELLE, Vision de la mort et de l'au-delà d'après les autels des âmes du Purgatoire, XVe-XXe siècles, Paris, A. Colin, 1970 ; le tableau récapitulatif est p. 87.

18. Sur le paradigme du miroir en histoire socio-culturelle, voir mon article, "Le musical et le social : variations sur quatre textes de William Weber", Annales E.S.C., 42e année, numéro 1 (janvier-février 1987) pp. 27-40.

19. Article cité, note 6.

20. Je viendrai par la suite à cette catégorisation.

21. H.-J. MARTIN et L. FEBVRE, L'apparition du livre, Paris, 1957, pp. 334, 370-371.

22. "Tirages et vente de livres à la fin du XVIIIe siècle : des documents chiffrés", Revue française de l'histoire du livre, T. III, numéro 5 (1973), pp. 87-113.

23. "Un savant et sa bibliothèque au XVIIIe siècle : les livres de Jean-Jacques Dortus de Mairan", Dix-Huitième Siècle, numéro 1 (1969), pp. 47-88.

24. Paris, 1921 ; continu‚ par E. CHAMPION jusqu'en 1937, par les Registres du th‚ƒtre jusqu'à aujourd'hui.

25. William WEBER, "La Musique ancienne in the Waning of the Ancien Régime", Journal of Modern History, numéro 56 (mars 1984), pp. 58-88.

26. Michel FOUCAULT, Les mots et les choses, Paris, Gallimard, 1966, p. 9. Un exemple parmi tant d'autres : Giovanni LEVI se propose d'étudier, comme "classe sociale", les Turinois habitant le rez-de-chaussée, le premier étage, le deuxième, etc. ; une sorte de géographie sociale verticale.

27. Henri BERR, "La méthode statistique et la question des grands hommes", La Nouvelle Revue, Tome 64 (mai-juin 1890), p. 742.

28. Pierre CHAUNU, "Malthusianisme démographique et malthusianisme économique : réflexions sur l'échec industriel de la Normandie à l'époque du démarrage", Annales E.S.C., 27e année, numéro 1 (janvier-février 1972), pp. 1-19, repris dans Histoire quantitative, histoire sérielle, op. cit., pp. 171-187, citation pp. 183-184.

29. Willem FRIJHOFF, "Grandeur des nombres et misères des réalités : la courbe de Franz Eulenburg et le débat sur le nombre d'intellectuels en Allemagne, 1576-1815", in Histoire sociale des populations étudiantes, T. I, sous la direction de D. JULIA, J. REVEL et R. CHARTIER, Paris, 1986, pp. 23-64 ; citation, p. 54.

30. Article cité, p. 742.

31. Livre et société ..., op. cit., 1965, p. 4.

32. Daniel MILO, "La bourse mondiale de la traduction : Un baromètre culturel ?", Annales E.S.C., 39e année, numéro 1 (janvier-février 1984), pp. 93-116.

33. Daniel MILO, "Le phénix culturel : de la résurrection dans l'histoire de l'art. L'exemple des peintres français (1650-1750)", Revue Française de Sociologie, XXVII-3 (juillet-septembre 1986), pp. 481-504 ; citation p. 501.

34. F. JACOB, op.cit., pp. 250-251.

35. Sur ce point voir Renato POGGIOLI, The Theory of Avant-Garde, Harvard University Press, 1968 (1962) ; ainsi que mon article "The 'Culinary' Character of Cinematic Language", Semiotica, numéro 58-1/2 (1986), pp. 83-99.

36. Traduction française T. TODOROV, Théorie de la littérature, op. cit., pp. 76-97, citations pp. 83, 84.

37. March BLOCH, "Pour une histoire comparée des sociétés européennes", Revue de Synthèse historique, Tome 46 (décembre 1928), pp. 15-50, repris dans Mélanges historiques, Tome I, Paris, EHESS, 1963, pp. 16-40 ; la citation est p. 19.

38. Ibid., p. 18.

39. Marc BLOCH, "Comparaison", Bulletin du Centre international de Synthèse, numéro 9 (juin 1930), pp. 31-39. Sur ce problème, voir le dossier publi‚ dans l'American Historical Review, vol. 85 (octobre 1980), pp. 828-857, avec un article de Arlette O. et Boyd H. HILL, des commentaires de W.H. SEWELL Jr. et de S.L. THRUPP, et une réplique des HILL ; de même que l'article de SEWELL, "Marc Bloch and Comparative History", History and Theory, 6 (1967), pp. 208-218 ; et l'introduction de Jacques LE GOFF à la nouvelle édition des Rois thaumaturges, Paris, 1983.

40. Une problématique que Carlo GINZBURG a soulevée, d'une manière plutôt provocante, dans une conférence à l'EHESS en janvier 1985 o— il suggérait une "influence" des bas-reliefs bouddhistes de la vallée du Gandhara sur Les Pleureuses de Giotto (à Padoue).

41. Witold KULA, Les mesures et les hommes, Paris, MSH, 1984 (1970), p. 93.

42. Trois des catégories qui m'ont servi - et desservi - dans mes recherches.

43. F. FURET, "La 'librairie' du royaume", op. cit., p. 17.

44. Daniel MILO, "Les noms de rue", in Les lieux de mémoire, (sous la direction de Pierre NORA), T. II, vol. 3, Paris, 1986, pp. 283-320.

45. Processus auquel contribue la mise en place du système métrique sous la Révolution française (cf. W. KULA, op. cit.).

46. Op. cit., p. 9.

47. C'est, selon la définition de Pierre Nora, le best-seller comme révélateur social.

48. Pour reprendre le thème cher à Robert Darnton.

49. Ce dossier est certainement le plus richement fourni dans l'histoire quantitative de la culture, avec celui consacré aux programmes et manuels scolaires dans la France de la Troisième République.

50. F. FURET, "La 'librairie' du royaume", op. cit., p. 14.

51. Mémoire, Sorbonne, non publié ; résultats repris par F. BLUCHE, Les magistrats du parlement de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (1715-1771), Thèse, Paris, 1956, Besançon, 1960, pp. 291-296.

52. J. EHRARD et J. ROGER, "Deux périodiques français du 18e siècle : le Journal des Savants et Les Mémoires de Trévoux. Essai d'une étude quantitative", Livre et Société, op. cit., T. I, 1965, pp. 33-61.

53. J. BRANCOLINI et M.-T. BOUYSSY, "La vie provinciale du livre à la fin de l'Ancien Régime", Livre et Société, op. cit., T. II, 1970, pp. 3-38.

54. J.-L. FLANDRIN et M. FLANDRIN, "La circulation du livre dans la société du 18e siècle : un sondage à travers quelques sources", ibid., pp. 39-72.

55. D. ROCHE, article cité, o— il souligne : "La répartition des livres a été établie selon les critères de l'époque", p. 72, note 1.

56. R. CHARTIER, "Livre et espace : circuits commerciaux et géographie culturelle de la librairie lyonnaise au XVIIIe siècle", Revue française de l'Histoire du Livre, Tome I, numéro 1-2 (1971), pp. 77-108.

57. C. THOMASSERY, "Livres et culture cléricale à Paris au XVIIIe siècle : quarante bibliothèques ecclésiastiques parisiennes", Revue française d'Histoire du Livre, Tome III, numéro 5 (1973), pp. 281-300.

58. R. MOULINAS, L'imprimerie, la librairie et la presse à Avignon au XVIIIe siècle, P.U. de Grenoble, 1974, pp. 150-179.

59. J. QUENIART, L'imprimerie et la librairie à Rouen au XVIIIe siècle, Paris, 1969, pp. 125-146 ; Culture et société urbaines dans la France de l'Ouest au XVIIIe siècle, Paris, 1978, en particulier pp. 308-336 ; mais là, Quéniart distingue entre "Les sciences et leurs applications" et "Economie, politique et philosophie" ; de plus, les graphiques font intervenir d'autres catégories.

60. Pour un bilan extrêmement critique - et pessimiste -, voir Robert DARNTON, "Reading, Writing and Publishing in Eighteenth-Century France : A Case Study in the Sociology of Literature", Daedalus Vol. 100 numéro 1, (hiver 1971), pp. 214-256, traduction française dans Bohème littéraire et Révolution : le monde du livre au XVIIIe siècle, Paris, 198, pp. 71-109. Roger CHARTIER et Daniel ROCHE proposent un bilan beaucoup plus nuanc‚ dans "L'histoire quantitative du livre", Revue française d'Histoire du Livre, T. VII, numéro 16 (juillet-septembre 1977), pp. 477-502.

61. Thèse, Paris, 1966, pp. 1156-1177.

62. P.U.F., Paris, 1971 (Thèse, 1969), pp. 561-572.

63. Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France, XVII (1910), pp. 449-496.

64. Ibid., p. 457.

65. Ibid., p. 455.

66. Louis DESGRAVES, "L'inventaire du fonds de livres du libraire bordelais Jacques Mongiran-Millanges en 1672", Revue française d'Histoire du Livre, Tome III, numéro 5 (1973), pp. 125-174.

67. Paris, EHESS, 1986.

68. R. DARNTON, article cité, pp. 76-83, 103-104 ; citation, p. 103, note 16.

69. Art. cité, p. 473.

70. M. VOVELLE, Piété baroque et déchristianisation. Attitudes provençales devant la mort d'après les clauses des testaments, Paris, Plon, 1972. La mort et l'Occident de 1300 à nos jours, Paris, Gallimard, 1983.

71. Paris, 1836, réimpression, Mouton, La Haye, 1969, avec une longue introduction d'Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (reprise dans Le territoire de l'historien, op. cit., pp. 349-392).

72. D'ANGEVILLE préfère insister sur les corrélations entre la carte 10 et la carte 9 de l'instruction primaire : "En comparant les 9e et 10e cartes, on voit une analogie frappante entre les départements o— il y a le plus d'ignorance et ceux o— les maisons sont les plus mal éclairées", p. 354. Ailleurs, E. LE ROY LADURIE et M. DEMONET établissent des corrélations entre "Alphabétisation et stature", Annales E.S.C., 1980, pp. 1329-1332.

73. Pour reprendre les théories d'Antoine-Augustin COURNOT, Exposition sur la théorie des chances et des probabilités, Paris, 1843, et l'Essai sur les fondements de nos connaissances et sur les caractères de la critique philosophique, Paris, 1851, si l'on rejette l'idée que le monde est un système organique o— "tout se tient", on doit admettre l'existence de séries indépendantes (ou parallèles), dont la rencontre produit le hasard - Cournot parle aussi d'"accident", d'"événement". Ce seraient donc les séries solidaires que la recherche des corrélations significatives nous révèlerait.

 

 


 

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